Qagan, Khan, or King? Power in Early Medieval Bulgaria (Seventh to Ninth Century)

Historians have traditionally seen the rulers of early medieval Bulgaria as either poor imitations of the Byzantine emperor or qagans of a “steppe empire.” Despite consistent use in Western ninth-century sources of the phrase rex Bulgarorum in reference to Krum and his successors, historians of the early Middle Ages often refer to his pagan predecessors as “khans.” However, the power of the Bulgar rulers was less a matter of titles and more a matter of action. This article examines the evidence of “true” politics, as well as ruler images as projected through buildings or inscriptions, to illuminate a key aspect of the history of eighth- and ninth-century Bulgaria, whose significance has never been fully recognized. Power contestation at home was directly associated to the projection of the ruler’s image beyond the limits of Bulgaria, as several rulers used the latter to overcome the former.