Roman Archaeology

Veneration of the supernatural was in ancient times interwoven into the fabric of the surrounding landscape. Caves rivers lakes mountains and water springs all formed conduits for a relationship between divinity and nature and sanctuaries were established as dedicated sites of worship. Taking Central Italy as its main focus this volume unravels layers of history and archaeology in order to shed light on the religious practices sacred sites and profound connections that have long existed between landscapes and religious places in this region. Through a synthesis of archaeological evidence and scholarly analysis the chapters gathered here unveil the significance of temples sanctuaries ex-votos religious productions and ritual spaces and provide a comprehensive understanding of how Etruscan and Roman societies engaged with their sacred surroundings. The result is an important reassessment of the religious dimensions that helped to shape the antique landscape of Central Italy.

The Roman town of Tongeren Atuatuca Tungrorum was founded c. 10 bc as the civitas capital of the Tungri. The early Roman phase of development of the settlement (c. 10 bc–ad 69/70) began with the construction of Wohnstallhäuser two-aisled features combining a domestic space and a stable under the same roof. These constructions perpetuate the tradition of building and living from the pre-Roman Iron Age and reveal that the first generations of urban dwellers were members of the indigenous society. Even before the middle of the 1st century however the native Wohnstallhäuser were replaced by a more Romanised house type that was still raised with wood and clay. A major city fire linked to the Batavian Revolt of 69–70 put an end to this early development. The Middle Roman period (last quarter of the 1st century 2nd and 3rd centuries) was characterised by the large scale introduction of stone building materials for both private housing and public monuments. Examples are the large temple on the northern edge of the town and the town wall dating to the second half of the 2nd century. There is nonetheless evidence of a continued and extensive use of wood and clay. Roman Tongeren was initially thought to be a consumer city. Archaeological excavations in recent decades have revealed not only evidence of consumption but of production based on waste associated with various crafts throughout almost all the urban area. The town burned down twice during this period. The first fire took place in the second half of the 2nd century followed by another in the second half of the 3rd century. The town in the Late Roman period (4th and first half of the 5th century) was not only a civitas capital but also a key military stronghold. A new town wall was raised to defend the highest part of the settlement and there is evidence of the existence of several military units of Tungri. Around the middle of the 4th century Tongeren also served as a bishopric. The town remained inhabited until the second third of the 5th century. Wooden writing tablets the subject of this publication are not the only indicators that the town’s residents could read and write to a lesser or greater extent. First of all there are inscriptions on important buildings and burial monuments and brief descriptions of scenes depicted by wall paintings. There are likewise inscriptions on coins that circulated frequently among provincial Roman society. Texts painted or scratched on potsherds or metal ware also reveal their owner content weight or price. Finally there are the remains of writing materials that occasionally come to light during excavations. Hence those inhabitants who did not possess a minimum of literacy probably found it difficult to fully function in society.

Twelve Gallo-Roman wooden tablets incised with texts from Tongeren were subjected to the method of Multi-Light Reflectance imaging to record and enhance their readability. Each of the sides of the fragments was recorded with a White Light Microdome a method that casts lights on their surfaces from 228 different angles ranging from perpendicular to oblique and raking over 360°. The processed dataset allows an interactive inspection of the incised features by manipulating the virtual light sources and activating specific appropriate visual styles in an open-sourced browserbased viewer. Apart from the incised text marks the method likewise serves to develop a dynamic record of the wooden tablets themselves (medium) and their state of preservation at the moment of the digitisation. The final results are made available by means of a IIIF implementation bearing a unique digital ID guaranteeing their long-term preservation.

The excavation of a Roman domus under the Basilica of Tongeren led to the discovery of an exceptional wall-painting (in a fragmentary state). Located towards the bottom of the wall this painting depicts a male carrying a writing tablet. His beard and hairstyle follow trends typical of the Antonine period. This realistic image reflects the socio-cultural status of the dominus who must have formed part of the local elite and depicts a genre scene that was probably representative of his profession.

Roman wooden writing tablets known in Latin as tabulae ceratae have been found by archaeologists in various locations around the former capital of the civitas/municipium Tungrorum or Roman Tongeren (now the Belgian city of Tongeren-Borgloon). These rare and delicate finds are remarkable not only due to the excellent state of their preservation but also because they are inscribed with the remnants of texts once etched into an overlying wax layer that can to the discerning eye still be deciphered. The tablets not only provide concrete information about religious judicial and administrative practices but they also enhance our understanding of the complex processes of Romanisation and Latinisation in the northwestern civitates and municipia of the Roman Empire.

Unearthed in the first half of the twentieth century with a second group discovered in 2013 the Roman tablets housed in the Gallo-Roman Museum of Tongeren-Borgloon and in the city’s municipal heritage depository became the object of an in-depth study by an international team of specialists piloted by the Gallo-Roman Museum. It is the results of this project that are presented here in this volume for the first time. The painstaking process of deciphering and interpreting the script marks and text fragments is explored via analysis of palaeography philology and onomastics along with key scientific techniques such as wax analysis wood species identification and script visualisation by Multi-Light Reflectance Imaging. Rich detail is also provided about other associated wooden finds that shed light on how and where the tablets were produced.

The result is a beautifully illustrated and insightful volume that introduces the lost world of Roman Tongeren and its writing tablets to professionals and the general public alike.