Skip to content
1882
Volume 20, Issue 1
  • ISSN: 1782-7183
  • E-ISSN: 2030-9902

Abstract

Abstract

This article examines the meaning of the term and its synonyms in Icelandic literary sources from the thirteenth century and assesses the extent to which such an analysis is useful for our understanding of the Icelandic Commonwealth. Vocabulary and terminology in Old Icelandic are analysed in the context of Latin parallels in European literary sources from the same period. The comparison between medieval Iceland and the process of encastellation, with the castle, the motte, and the fortified house in the medieval West offers a good epistemological basis when looking for fortifications in medieval Iceland and their functions. We argue that the concentration of power is parallel to the development of this new type of fortified housing which is connected to the new centres of power. The narrative sources indicate their use within the game of power and their symbolic roles within the new elites.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1484/J.VMS.5.142569
2024-01-01
2025-12-06

Metrics

Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Primary Sources
    Ármann Jakobsson and Þórður Ingi Guðjónsson, eds. 2011. Morkinskinna, Íslenzk fornrit 23, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag
  2. Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson, ed. 1945. Ólafs saga helga, in Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla, ii, Íslenzk fornrit 27, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 3–415
  3. ———, ed. 1951a. Magnússona saga, in Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla, iii, Íslenzk fornrit 28, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 238–77
  4. ———, ed. 1951b. Mágnúss saga Blinda ok Haralds Gilla, in Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, iii, Íslenzk fornrit 28, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 278–302
  5. Bjarni Einarsson, ed. 1984. Fagrskinna, in Ágrip af Nóregskonunga sögum: Fagrskinna- Nóregs konunga tal, Íslenzk fornrit 29, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 55–373
  6. Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ed. 1934. Laxdœla saga, in Laxdœla saga; Halldórs Þættir Snorrasonar; Stúfs Þáttr Íslenzk fornrit 5, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 1–248
  7. ———, ed. 1939a. Vatnsdœla saga, in Vatnsdœla saga; Hallfreðar saga; Kormáks saga; Hrómundar Þáttr Halta; Hrafns Þáttr Guðrúnarsonar, Íslenzk fornrit 8, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 1–131
  8. ———, ed. 1939b. Hrómundar þáttr Halta, in Vatnsdœla saga; Hallfreðar saga; Kormáks saga; Hrómundar Þáttr Halta; Hrafns Þáttr Guðrúnarsonar, Íslenzk fornrit 8, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 303–15
  9. ———, ed. 1954. Brennu-Njáls saga, Íslenzk fornrit 12, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 5–464
  10. Einar Ól. Sveinsson and Matthías Þórðarson, eds. 1935. Eyrbyggja saga, in Eyrbyggja saga; Brands þáttr örva; Eiríks saga rauða; Grœnlendinga saga; Grœnlendinga þáttr, Íslenzk fornrit 4, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 244–69
  11. [Guðmundur Andrésson. 1683.] Lexicon Islandicum, Orðabók Guðmundar Andréssonar, ed. Gunnlaugur Ingólfsson and Jakob Benediktsson 1999, Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans
  12. Holm-Olsen, Ludvig, ed. 1945. Konungs skuggsiá, Gammelnorske tekster 1, Oslo: Dybwad
  13. ———, ed. 1983. Konungs skuggsiá, Norrøne tekster, 1, 2nd edn, Oslo: Norsk Historisk Kjedeskrift-Institutt
  14. Jakob Benediktsson, ed. 1968. Landnámabók, in Íslendingabók: Landnámabók, Íslenzk fornrit 1, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 29–397
  15. Jóhannes Halldórsson, ed. 1959. Finnboga saga, in Kjalnesinga saga, Íslenzk fornrit 14, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 251–340
  16. Jón Jóhannesson, ed. 1950. Fljóstdœla saga, in Austfirðinga sögur; Þorsteins saga hvíta; Vápnfirðinga saga; Þorsteins þáttr stangarhoggs; Olkofra þáttr; Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða; Droplangarsona saga; Brandkrossa þáttr Gunnars þáttr Þiðrandabana, Íslenzk fornrit 11, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 213–96
  17. Sigurður Nordal and Guðni Jónsson, eds. 1938. Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, in Borgfirðinga sögur; Hœnsa-Þóris saga; Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu; Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa; Heiðvarvíga saga; Gísls þáttr Illugasonar, Íslenzk fornrit 2, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 109–211
  18. ———, eds. 1956. Heiðarvíga saga, in Borgfirðinga sögur; Hœnsa-Þóris saga; Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu; Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa; Heiðvarvíga saga; Gísls þáttr Illugasonar, Íslenzk fornrit 3, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 213–328
  19. Þórhallur Vilmundarson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson, eds. 1991. Harðar saga Grímkelssonar, in Harðar saga […], Íslenzk fornrit 13, Reykjavík: Hið íslenska fornritafélag, 1–97
  20. Örnölfur Thorsson, ed. 2010a. Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning
  21. ———, ed. 2010b. Þorgils saga ok Hafliða, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 7–46
  22. ———, ed. 2010c. Sturlu saga, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 51–99
  23. ———, ed. 2010d. Guðmundar saga Dýra, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 123–71, 174–76
  24. ———, ed. 2010e. Íslendinga saga, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 181–90, 195–96, 209–30, 245–458, 566–70, 628–45, 645–52, 652–56, 657–60, 662–63, 664–77, 737–38, 740, 742–43, 747–59
  25. ———, ed. 2010f. Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 230–45
  26. ———, ed. 2010g. Þórðar saga kakala, in Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 459–550, 738–40
  27. ———, ed. 2010h. Þorgils saga skarða, Sturlunga saga: Árna saga biskups, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar hin sérstaka, 3 vols, Reykjavík, Mál og menning, 570–627, 645, 652, 656–57, 660–62, 663, 677–737, 740–42, 743–47
  28. Secondary Sources
    Adolf Friðriksson. 1994. Sagas and Popular Antiquarianism in Icelandic Archaeology, Avebury: Worldwide Archaeology Series
  29. ———, ed. 2002. Þinghald til forna: Framvinduskýrsla 2002, FS 183-02142, Reykjavík: Fornleifastofnun Íslands
  30. Alexander Jóhannesson. 1956. Isländisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bern: Francke
  31. Askeberg, Fritz. 1944. Norden och kontinenten i gammal tid: studier i forngermansk kulturhistoria, Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell
  32. Axel Kristinsson. 1991. ‘Goðavald og ríkisvald’ (unpublished master’s thesis, Háskóli Íslands)
  33. ———. 2002. ‘Sagas and Politics in 13th-Century Borgarfjörður’, in Sagas and Societies: International Conference at Borgarnes, Iceland, September 5–9. 2002, ed. Stefanie Würth, Tõnno Jonuks, and Axel Kristinsson, 1–14 <https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/46198> [accessed 1 August 2024]
  34. ———. 2004. ‘Ríki Árnesinga’, Árnesingur 6, 91–120
  35. Árni Daníel Júlíusson. 1999. ‘Bønder i pestens tid. Landbrug, godsdrift og social konflikt i semiddelalderens islandske bondesamfund’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Københavns Universitet)
  36. ———. 2010. ‘Signs of Power: Manorial Demesnes in Medieval Iceland’, Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 6, 129
    [Google Scholar]
  37. ———. 2016. Miðaldir í skuggsjá Svarfaðardals, Reykjavík: JPV
  38. Árni Hjartason and Hallgerður Gísladóttir. 1992. ‘Hellarannsóknaleiðangur Einars Benediktssonar 1915’, Árbók Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags, 135–44
  39. Bagge, Sverre. 2010. From Viking Stronghold to Christian Kingdom: State Formation in Norway, c. 900–1350, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press
  40. Barceló, Michel, and Pierre Toubert, eds. 1998. L’incastellamento: Actes des rencontres de Gérone (26–27 novembre 1992) et de Rome (5–7 mai 1994), Rome: Collection de l’École française de Rome
  41. Barthélemy, Dominique. 1997. La mutation de l’an mil a-t-elle eut lieu? Servage et chevalerie dans la France des xe et xie siècles, Paris: Fayard
  42. ———. 1999. L’an mil et la paix de Dieu: la France chrétienne et féodale 980–1060, Paris: Fayard
  43. ———. 2004. ‘La mutation de l’an 1100 et le nouvel encellulement’, in Les pouvoirs locaux dans la France du centre et de l’ouest (viiiexie siècles): implantation et moyens d’action, ed. Dominique Barthélemy and Olivier Bruand, Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 244–48
  44. ———. 2007. La chevalerie: de la Germanie antique à la France du xiie siècle, Paris: Fayard
  45. ———, and Stephen D. White. 1996. ‘The Feudal Revolution’, Past and Present 152, 196223
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Bartlett, Robert. 1993. The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950–1350, Princeton: Princeton University Press
  47. Bazzana, Andrés, Pierre Guichard, and Jean Michel Poisson. 1983. Castrum, i: Habitats fortifiés et organisation de l’espace en Méditerranée médiévale: table ronde tenue à Lyon les 4 et 5 mai 1982, Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux
  48. Bijsterveld, Arnoud-Jan, Kim Esmark, and Hans Jacob Orning. 2020. ‘Elites and Social Bonds – How Nordic Were the Nordic Medieval Elites?’, in Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, ii: Social Networks, ed. Kim Esmark, Lars Hermanson, and Hans Jacob Orning, London: Routledge, 325–45
  49. Bisson, Thomas N. 1994. ‘The Feudal Revolution’, Past and Present 142, 642
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Bloch, Marc. 1939–1940. La société féodale, Paris: Albin Michel
  51. Bougard, François. 2000. ‘Incastellamento’, in Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Moyen Age, ed. André Vauchez, 2 vols, Paris: Cerf, i, 720–21
  52. Boulhosa, Patricia P. 2005. Icelanders and the Kings of Norway: Mediaeval Sagas and Legal Texts, The Northern World 17, Leiden: Brill
  53. Bourgeois, Luc, ed. 2009. Une résidence des comtes d’Angoulême autour de l’an mil: le castrum d’Andone, Caen: Publications du Centre de recherches archéologiques et historiques médiévales
  54. Bourin, Monique. 1987Villages médiévaux en Bas-Languedoc: genèse d’une sociabilité: xe-xive siècles, i: Du château au village: xe-xiie siècles, Paris: L’Harmattan
  55. Brand’Honneur, Michel. 2001. Manoirs et châteaux dans le comté de Rennes: habitat à motte et société chevaleresque (xie-xiie siècles), Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes
  56. Bruun, Daniel. 1896. Fortidsminder og Nutidshjem paa Island: orienterende undersøgelser foretagne i 1896, Copenhagen: Nordiske forlag
  57. Bur, Michel, ed. 1986. La maison forte au Moyen Âge: actes de la table ronde du 31 mai au 3 juin 1984, Nancy-Pont-à-Mousson, Paris: Éditions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique
  58. ———. 1999. Le château, Typologie des sources du Moyen Âge occidental 79, Turnhout: Brepols
  59. Callow, Chris. 2019. ‘Comparing Medieval Iceland with Other Regions: Problems and Possibilities’, in Italy and Early Medieval Europe: Papers for Chris Wickham, ed. Ross Balzaretti, Julia Barrow, and Patricia Skinner, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 416–29
  60. ———. 2020. Landscape, Tradition and Power in Medieval Iceland: Dalir and the Eyjafjörður Region c. 870-c. 1265, Leiden: Brill
  61. Cattaneo, Grégory. 2010. ‘The Oath of Fidelity in Iceland: A Tie of Feudal Allegiance’, Scandinavian Studies 82.1, 2136
    [Google Scholar]
  62. ———. 2014a. ‘Understanding the Balance of Power in Eastern Iceland: Some Remarks on the Saga of the Men of Svinafell’, Sredniowiecze polskie i powszechne 9, 61–85
  63. ———. 2014b. ‘La bataille navale de Flói: mémoire et identité dans l’Islande médiévale’, in Guerre, mémoire, identité, ed. Grégory Cattaneo, Paris: Nuvis, 19–61
  64. ———. 2020. ‘La communauté sans royaume dans l’Islande médiévale’, in Communitas Regni: la ‘communauté de royaume’ de la fin du xe siècle au début du xive siècle (Angleterre, Écosse, France, Empire, Scandinavie), ed. Dominique Barthélemy, Isabelle Guyot-Bachy, Frédérique Lachaud, and Jean-Marie Moeglin, Paris: Sorbonne Université Presses, 249–72
  65. ———. 2022. ‘Les communauté d’habitants dans l’Islande médiévale (xie-xiiie siècles)’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Háskóli Íslands)
  66. Chédeville, André. 1973. Chartres et ses campagnes (xiexiiie siècles), Paris: Klincksieck
  67. Cleasby, Richard, and Guðbrandur Vigfússon. 1874. An Icelandic English Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon
  68. Collingwood, William Gershom. 1899. A Pilgrimage to the Saga-Steads of Iceland, Ulverstone: Holmes
  69. Debord, André. 1979. ‘Castrum et castellum chez Adémar de Chabannes’, Archéologie médiévale 9, 97–113
  70. ———. 2000. Aristocratie et pouvoir: le rôle du château dans la France médiévale, ed. André Bazzana and Jean-Michel Poisson, Paris: Picard
  71. De Vries, Jan. 1962. Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2nd edn, Leiden: Brill, repr. 1977
  72. Discussion 1980. ‘Discussion’, in Actes des congrès de la Société des historiens médiévistes de l’enseignement supérieur public, 10ᵉ congrès: Lille, 1979; le paysage rural; réalités et représentations (Lille: Revue du Nord), pp. 218–20
  73. Du Cange, ed. 1883–1887. Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis, Niort: L. Favre
  74. Fossier, Robert. 1982. Enfance de l’Europe, xexiie siècles: aspects économiques et sociaux, i: L’homme et son espace; ii: Structures et Problèmes, Nouvelle Clio: L’histoire et ses problèmes, 17 and 17 bis, Paris: Presses universitaires de France
  75. Fritzner, Johan. 1973. Ordbog over det gamle norske Sprog: Omarbeidet, forøget og forbedret Udgave, 4th edn, 3 vols, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget
  76. [Gruss, Robert] 1978. Dictionnaire Gruss de Marine, Paris: Éditions maritimes et d’Outre-Mer
  77. Guðmundur Ólafsson, Kevin P. Smith, and Agnes Stefánsdóttir. 2004. Rannsókn á minjum í Surtshelli, Reykjavík: Rannsóknaskýrslur Þjóðminjasafns 2001
  78. Guðrún Harðardóttir. 2006. ‘The Physical Setting of Reykholt according to Sturlunga saga’, in Reykholt som makt- og lærdomssenter i den islandske og nordiske kontekst, ed. Else Mundal, Reykholt: Snorrastofa
  79. Guðrún Harðardóttir and Þór Hjaltalín. 1998. ‘Varnir heimilis í miðstjórnarlausu samfélagi. Hlutverk virkja og skipulags bæjarhúsa í ljósi Sturlungasögu’, in Íslenska söguþingið 28.-31. maí 1997, i, ed. Guðmundur J. Guðmundsson and Eiríkur K. Björnsson, Reykjavík: Sagnfræðistofnun Háskóla Íslands, 95–106
  80. Guðrún Nordal. 1992. ‘Sagnarit um innlend efni: Sturlunga saga’, in Íslensk bókmenntasaga, i, ed. Gúðrun Nordal, Sverrir Tómasson, and Vésteinn Ólason, Reykjavík: Mál og menning, 309–44
  81. ———. 2000. ‘The Contemporary Sagas and their Social Context’, in Old Icelandic Literature and Society, ed. Margaret Clunies Ross, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 221–41
  82. Guðrún Sveinbjarnardóttir. 2006. ‘Reykholt, a Center of Power: The Archaeological Evidence’, in Reykholt som makt- og lærdomssenter i den islandske og nordiske kontekst, ed. Else Mundal, Reykholt: Snorrastofa, 25–42
  83. ———. 2012. Reykholt: Archaeological Investigations at a High Status Farm in Western Iceland, Rit Þjóðminjasafn Íslands 29, Reykjavík: Snorrastofa
  84. Gunnar Karlsson. 1972a. ‘Goðar og bændur’, Saga 10, 5–57
  85. ———. 1972b. ‘Frá þjóðveldi til konungsríkis’, Saga Íslands 2, 2954
    [Google Scholar]
  86. ———. 1980. ‘Völd og auður á 13. öld’, Saga 18, 5–30
  87. ———. 1983. ‘Um valdakerfi 13. aldar og aðferðir sagnfræðinga’, Saga 21, 271–79
  88. ———. 2004. Goðamenning: Staða og áhrif goðorðmanna í þjóðveldi Íslendinga, Reykjavík: Heimskringla, Háskólaforlag Máls og menningar
  89. ———. 2007. ‘Valdasamþjöppun þjóðveldisaldar í túlkun fræðimanna’, in Þriðja íslenska söguþing 18.-21. maí 2006: Raðstefnurit, ed. Benedikt Eyþórsson and Hrafnkell Lárusson, Reykjavík: Sagnfræðistofnun Háskóla Íslands, Sögufélag og Sagnfræðifélag Íslands, 205–13
  90. Hannes Jónsson. 1970. Snæfellsness III. Sýslu- og sóknalýsingar, Reykjavík: Hins íslenzka bókmentafélags
  91. Helgi Þorláksson. 1979. ‘Stórbændur gegn goðum. Hugleiðingar um goðavald, konungsvald og sjálfræðishug bænda um miðbik 13. aldar’, in Söguslóðir: Afmælisrit helgað Ólafi Hanssyni sjötugum, Reykjavík: Sögufélag, 227–50
  92. ———. 1982. ‘Stéttir, auður og völd á 12. og 13. öld’, Saga 20, 62–113
  93. ———. 1989. Gamlar götur og goðavald: Um fornar leiðir og völd Oddaverja í Rangárþingi, Reykjavík: Sögufélag
  94. ———. 1992. ‘Sauðafell: Um leiðir og völd í Dölum við lok þjóðveldis’, in Yfir Íslandsála: Afmælisrit til heiðurs Magnúsi Stefánssyni sextugum 25. desember 1991, ed. Helgi Þorláksson and Gunnar Karlsson, Reykjavík: Sögufræðslusjóður, 95–109
  95. ———. 1994. ‘Þjóðleið hjá Brekku og Bakka. Um leiðir og völd í Öxnadal við lok þjóðveldis’, in Samtiðarsögur: Niunda Alþjodlega fornsagnaþingið; Forprent / The Contemporary Sagas: The Ninth International Saga Conference; Preprints; Akureyri 31.7. - 6.8. 1994, i, Reykjavík: n.p., 335–49
  96. ———. 1999. ‘Hrúni. Um mikilvægi staðarins fyrir samgöngur, völd og kirkjulegt starf á þjóðveldisöld’, Árnesingur 5, 9–72
  97. ———, ed. 2005. Church Centres: Church Centres in Iceland from the 11th to the 13th Century and their Parallels in Other Countries, Reykholt: Snorrastofa
  98. ———. 2007. ‘Höfðingjasetur, miðstöðvar og valdamiðstöðvar: inngangur að málstofunni Valdamiðstöðvar á miðöldum’, in Þriðja íslenska söguþingið 18.‑21. maí 2006. Ráðstefnurit, ed. Benedikt Eyþórsson and Hrafnkell Lárusson, Reykjavík: Aðstandendur Þriðja íslenska söguþingsins, 190–97
  99. ———. 2010. ‘Milli Skarðs og Feykis – Um valdasamþjöppun í Hegranesþingi í tíð Ásbirninga og um valdamiðstöðvar þeirra’, Saga 2, 51–93
  100. ———. 2012. ‘Sturlunga – Tilurð og markmið’, Gripla 23, 5392
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Hermanson, Lars, and Hans Jacob Orning. 2020. ‘Lords and Followers: Patron-Client Relationships’, in Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, ii: Social Networks, ed. Kim Esmark, Lars Hermanson, and Hans Jacob Orning, London: Routledge, 33–53
  102. Hubert, Étienne. 2000. ‘L’incastellamento dans le Latium. Remarques à propos de fouilles récentes’, Annales: histoires, sciences sociales 3, 583–99
  103. Jal, Augustin. 1848. Glossaire nautique: répertoire polyglotte de termes de marine anciens et modernes, Paris: Didot
  104. Jón Viðar Sigurðsson. 1989. Frá goðorðum til ríkja. Þróun goðavalds á 12. og 13. öld, Sagnfræðirannsóknir 10, Reykjavík: Menningarsjóður
  105. ———. 1999. Chieftains and Power in the Icelandic Commonwealth, The Viking Collection 12, Odense: Odense University Press
  106. ———. 2007. ‘Stórkirkjur, sagnaritun og valadamiðstöðvar 1100–1400’, in Þriðja íslenska söguþingið, Þriðja íslenska söguþingið 18.-21. maí 2006, ed. Benedikt Eyþórsson and Hrafnkell Lárusson, Reykjavík: Aðstandendur Þriðja íslenska söguþingsins, 225–33
  107. ———. 2009. ‘Allir sem sjá líta þó ekki jafnt á: sagnaritun um íslenskar miðaldir fram um 1300’, in Íslensk Sagnfræði á 20. öld, ed. Guðmundur J. Guðmundsson, Guðmundur Jónsson, and Sigurður Ragnarsson, Reykjavík: Sögufélag, 33–57
  108. ———. 2011. ‘Becoming a “Skattland”: The Skattgjafir-Process between the Kings of Norway and the Icelanders c. 1250–1300’, in Taxes, Tributes and Tributary Lands in the Making of the Scandinavian Kingdoms in the Middle Ages, ed. Steinar Imsen, Trondheim: Tapir, 115–31
  109. ——— and Sverrir Jakobsson, eds. 2017. Sturla Þórðarson (1214–1284): Life and Legacy, Turnhout: Brill
  110. Laffont, Pierre-Yves. 1999. ‘Châteaux, pouvoirs et habitats en Vivarais, xe-xiiie siècles’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Université Lyon 2, IV)
  111. Lauranson-Rosaz, Christian. 2000. ‘La “mutación feudal”: una cuestión controvertida’, Historiar 4, 1231
    [Google Scholar]
  112. ‘Les fortifications’. 1981. ‘Les fortifications de terre en Europe en Europe occidentale du xie au xiie siècles (Colloque de Caen, 2–5 octobre 1980)’, Archéologie médiévale 11, 5–123
  113. Lundberg, Erik B. 1963. ‘Kastal’, in Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder, Reykjavík: Rosenkilde & Bagger, viii, 323–28
  114. Lúðvík Ingvarsson. 1986–1987. Goðorð og goðorðsmenn, 3 vols, Egilsstöðum
  115. Magnús Jónsson. 1939. Ásbirningar, Skagfirzk Fræði 1, Reykjavík: Sögufélag Skagfirðinga
  116. Magnús Stefánsson. 2000. Staðir og staðamál: Studier i islandske egenkirkelige og beneficialrettslige forhold i middelalderen, Bergen: Historisk institutt, Universitetet i Bergen
  117. Matthías Þórðarsson. 1945. Þingvöllur: Alþingisstaðurinn Forni, Reykjavík: Alþingissögunefnd
  118. Mjöll Snæsdóttir, Gavin Lucas, and Orri Vésteinsson. 2006. ‘Fornleifar og rannsóknir í Skálholti’, in Saga Biskupsstólanna: Fornleifar og rannsóknir í Skálholti, ed. Gunnar Kristjánsson and Óskar Guðmundsson, Akureyri: Hólar, 675–97
  119. Ólsen, Björn M. 1880–1881. ‘Borgarvirki’, Árbók Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags 1880–1881, 99–113
  120. Raffield, Ben. 2013. ‘Antiquarians, Archaeologists, and Viking Fortifications’, Journal of the North Atlantic 20.1, 1–29
  121. Reuter, Timothy, and Chris Wickham. 1997. ‘The Feudal Revolution’, Past and Present 155, 177225
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Rey, Alain. 2000. Dictionnaire historique de la langue française, Paris: Le Robert
  123. Ridel, Élisabeth. 2009. Les Vikings et les mots: l’apport de l’ancien scandinave à la langue française, Paris: Errance
  124. Roesdahl, Else. 1993a. ‘Danevirke’, in Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, ed. Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf, New York: Garland, 120–21
  125. ———. 1993b. ‘Fortification’, in Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, ed. Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf, New York: Garland, 209–16
  126. ———. 1993c. ‘Fortresses, Trelleborg’, in Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, ed. Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf, New York: Garland, 216–18
  127. ———. 1993–1994. ‘Les fortifications circulaires de l’époque viking au Danemark’, Proxima Thulé: Revue d’études nordiques 1, 25–50
  128. Sirot, Élisabeth. 2007. Noble et forte maison: l’habitat seigneurial dans les campagnes médiévales, du milieu du xiie au début du xvie siècle, Paris: Picard
  129. Sigurð Vigfússon. 1880–1881. ‘Rannsókn á hinum forna alþingisstað Íslendinga, og fleira, sem þar að lýtr. II. Um Þingvöll og Þingvallarsveit’, Árbók Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags 1880–1881, 31–51
  130. ———. 1892. ‘Rannsóknarferð um Húnavatns og Skagafjarðar sýslur 1886’, Árbók Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags 1892, 76–123
  131. ———. 1893. ‘Rannsóknir á vestrlandi 1891’, Árbók Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags 1893, 61–73
  132. Sólborg Una Pálsdóttir. 2005. Víðimýri í Skagafirði Fornleifaskráning: Rit Fornleifaverndar ríkisins 2005:1, Saudárkrókur: Fornleifavernd ríkisins
  133. Steinberg, John M., and Douglas J. Bolender. 2002–2003. ‘Rannsóknir á búsetuminjum í Skagafirði. Aðferðir og niðurstöður eftir tveggja ára starf’, Árbók 2002–2003, 107–30
  134. Sveinbjörn Egilsson. 1931. Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis, rev. Finnur Jónsson, Copenhagen: Møllers
  135. Sveinbjörn Rafnsson. 1983. Frásögur um Fornaldarleifar 1817–1823, 2 vols, Reykjavík: Stofnun Árna Magnússonar
  136. Sverrir Jakobsson. 2007. ‘Valdamiðstöðvar við Breiðafjörð á fyrstu öldum byggðar’, in Þriðja íslenska söguþing 18.-21. maí 2006. Raðstefnurit, ed. Benedikt Eyþórsson and Hrafnkell Lárusson, Reykjavík: Sagnfræðistofnun Háskóla Íslands, Sögufélag og Sagnfræðifélag Íslands, 190–97
  137. ———. 2009. ‘The Process of State-Formation in Medieval Iceland’, Viator: Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 40.2, 15170
    [Google Scholar]
  138. ———. 2013. ‘From Reciprocity to Manorialism: On the Peasant Mode of Production in Medieval Iceland’, Scandinavian Journal of History 38, 123
    [Google Scholar]
  139. ———. 2015. Saga Breiðfirðinga, i: Fólk og rými frá landnámi til plágunnar miklu, Reykjavík: Sagnfræðistofnun Háskóla Íslands
  140. ———. 2016. Auðnaróðal: Baráttan um Ísland 1096–1281, Reykjavík: Sögufélag
  141. ———. 2018. ‘Reykholt as a Centre of Power 3. Regional Power Centres – The Case of Borgarfjǫrðr’, in Snorri Sturluson and Reykholt: The Author and Magnate, his Life, Works and Environment at Reykholt in Iceland, ed. Helgi Þorláksson and Guðrún Sveinbjarnardóttir, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 138–51
  142. ToubertPierre. 1973. Les structures du Latium médiéval: le Latium méridional et la Sabine du ixe à la fin du xiie siècle, Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 221, Rome: École française de Rome
  143. Úlfar Bragason. 2005. ‘Sagas of Contemporary History (Sturlunga saga): Texts and Research’, in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. Rory McTurk, Oxford: Blackwell, 427–46
  144. ———. 2010. Ætt og saga: Um frásagnarfræði Sturlungu eða Íslendinga sögur hinnar miklu, Reykjavík: Háskólaútgafan
  145. Valtýr Guðmundsson. 1889. Privatboligen på Island i sagatiden samt delvis i det øvrige norden, Copenhagen: Andr. Fred. Høst & Söns Forlag
  146. Verbruggen, Jans Frans. 1950. ‘Note sur le sens des mots castrum, castellum, et quelques autres expressions qui désignent des fortifications’, Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire 28.1, 14755
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Viðar Pálsson. 2016. Language of Power: Feasting and Gift Giving in Medieval Iceland and its Sagas, Ithaca: Cornell University Library
  148. Þorleifur Einarsson (trans. Georg Douglas). 1994. Geology of Iceland: Rocks and Landscape, Reykjavík: Mál og menning
  149. Þórhallur Vilmundarson. 1969. Um sagnfræði: Þróun sagnaritunar; Heimspekikenningar um sögu; Heimildafræði, Reykjavík: n.p.
  150. ———. 1971. ‘-stad. Island’, in Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder, Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger, v, 578–84
  151. Online Sources
    Iceland Road Guide <http://icelandroadguide.com> [accessed 4 January 2024]
  152. Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog: A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose, Copenhagen, Den Arnamagnæanske Kommission <https://onp.ku.dk/onp/onp.php> [accessed 4 January 2024]
/content/journals/10.1484/J.VMS.5.142569
Loading
/content/journals/10.1484/J.VMS.5.142569
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
Keyword(s): comparative history; concentration of power; encastellation; Fortifications; lord; sagas
This is a required field.
Please enter a valid email address.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An error occurred.
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error:
Please enter a valid_number test
aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuYnJlcG9sc29ubGluZS5uZXQv