Archival Material
More general subjects:
Revisiting Herzfeld’s Letters and Diaries from the Samarra Excavation 1911–1913
The excavation at Samarra in present-day Iraq in 1911–1913 directed by Ernst Herzfeld and facilitated by Friedrich Sarre was a key moment in Islamic archaeology. This contribution re-examines Herzfeld’s diaries and parts of the excavation archive which until now have been utilized primarily to contextualize the finds and elucidate the roles of Herzfeld Sarre and the Berlin museum.
By uncovering previously marginalized narratives emphasizing the agency of local facilitators and labourers and re-reading Herzfeld’s narratives of conflicts with local stakeholders this contribution encourages reflection on the interpretation of excavation records within broader historical contexts thereby challenging Eurocentric narratives. It stresses the need to critically engage with archival biases in order to better understand the complexities of German imperial excavations in the Ottoman Empire.
Antiquities, Diplomacy, and the Construction of Soft Power in Greek–US Political Relationships at the Beginning of the Cold War Era. A Perspective from Archival Research in Greece and the USA
Already before World War II the Greek government or its delegates presented antiquities as diplomatic gifts encoding explicit or implicit messages from givers to receivers and vice versa. This practice witnessed a new impetus after World War II. This essay focuses on the inaugural presentation of a set of symbolically charged antiquities presented to President Truman by a formal delegation from Greece on 28 March 1949. The analysis comments on the nature of archival resources in Greece and the United States while problematizing the qualitative and quantitative nature of the existing archival records of Greece and the United States. The comparison between these records illuminates an interesting phenomenon that has largely to do with the power differential between the global superpower of the USA and the ‘crypto-colonial’ state of Greece in a liminal geostrategic location of Europe. One could expect that as a source country Greece would have a firmly simple but clear archival record of this formal exportation of antiquities. This record however is very scarce and this has to do at least in part with the intentional elimination of the archival habit in the troubled political life of Greece after World War II. On the other hand archives in the US are rich in information mainly because the archival habit has to do with construction maintenance and imposition of power both internally and externally.
‘Grave Z’ at Demetrias and the Notorious Case of the Volos Gold Wreath. Arvanitopoulos’s Archives and Early Twentieth-Century Greek Archaeology
Owing to its research history the study of ancient Thessaly is particularly reliant on archaeology legacy data. The region was extensively investigated by its first director of antiquities Apostolos S. Arvanitopoulos (active 1905–1926) who conducted large-scale excavations (most of them still unpublished) opened a major museum and published hundreds of inscriptions. Scattered among many academic institutions and until the late 1990s mostly inaccessible Arvanitopoulos’s very rich archives are invaluable for recontextualizing archaeological finds but also constitute historical sources in their own right. The so-called ‘Grave Z’ at Demetrias will be used as a case study to showcase the potential and the challenges of Arvanitopoulos’s archives. Alongside the recontextualization of some of the most impressive sets of grave-goods from Demetrias these archives inform our knowledge about Arvanitopoulos the impact of contemporary affairs and politics on archaeology during the turbulent period of the early twentieth century the involvement of academics in the antiquities trade and ultimately the history of Greek archaeology as a discipline.
Reassembling the Network. Richard Christensen and the 1872–1873 Purchase of Antiquities in Athens for the Copenhagen Collections
There is something of an oxymoron with archaeological archives. They are undeniably central to archaeological research with excavation documents being ‘archival’ by nature yet their use and interpretive power remain peripheral at best. This paper argues that archives are part of historiography — an integral component of any discipline’s critical re-evaluation. For this reason they form valuable thinking tools for the social history and anthropology of archaeology. One such illustration is given here through the study of a series of letters by Richard Christensen relating to the purchase of ancient objects in Athens in 1872–1873 on behalf of the Ethnographic and Antiquities departments in Copenhagen (now part of the National Museum of Denmark). It is through such archival information that the networks regarding the sourcing and trafficking of ancient objects can be reassembled and their multidimensional impact on the disciplinary development of archaeology and on the formation of modern antiquities collections can be explicated.
Turning the Page
Archaeological Archives and Entangled Knowledge
Throughout the nineteenth and for much of the twentieth century archives were considered to be containers of knowledge holding material that was deemed to be objective and unbiased. In more recent years however as scholars have begun to engage more with archival material this perception has changed and archives have increasingly been recognized as sites of contention holding curated historical documents — a re-evaluation that in turn has led to a new understanding of the role and significance of both archives and archiving practices as well as to revived interest in their contents.
Taking renewed scholarly interest in archives as its starting point this volume highlights the importance of archival material both as a source of study and as a way of unleashing hitherto ‘lost’ knowledge. The chapters gathered here present previously unpublished material for the first time as well as offer new insights into archival and curatorial practices. Through this approach the authors not only reveal unknown aspects and histories of both past and ongoing excavations but also shed light on the creation processes of an archive an element that is typically lost by the time the material is designated as an archive by those who study it. The result is a volume that can shape best archival practices and approaches for the future.
The Infrastructure of an Excavation. Harald Ingholt’s Excavation Journals from Hama, Syria, 1931–1938
The excavations at the ancient city mound of Hama conducted by a Danish team of archaeologists in the 1930s resulted in one of the most extensive and thorough examinations ever to be carried out in west-central Syria. Symptomatic for excavations in the twentieth-century Middle East the work was labour-heavy and demanded large quantities of hired-in individuals. This in turn called for a high level of navigational skills on behalf of the excavators. The Danish archaeologists therefore sourced both know-how and goodwill via a complex system of intermediaries and always made transparent in their own published reports that this system was in place and essential for the scholarly results. However its components were never addressed in a formalized way. In line with the recent publication of Harald Ingholt’s diaries from Palmyra1 this paper will focus on his unpublished excavation journals from Hama. We offer an overview of the Hama excavation ‘infrastructure’ and the various stakeholders engaging at all levels.
Where in the World Are the Papademos Antiquities? A Search for the Stock of an Athenian Art Dealer of the Late Nineteenth/Early Twentieth Century
Between 1899 and 1902 a significant number of antiquities enriched the collections of the National Archaeological Museum as a result of the new law 2646 of 24 July 1899 ‘On antiquities’. According to article 32 of this revolutionary law all those possessing movable antiquities were obliged to declare them to the General Ephor of Antiquities within six months while article 22 stated that in order for any antiquity found in Greek territory to be exported it had to be first determined by the Archaeological Committee as ‘useless’ for the state museums. The law resulted in the official declaration of many important collections of artefacts belonging to art dealers who were moreover very eager to have their objects divided into ‘useful’ and ‘useless’ so that they could continue their lucrative activities; the ‘useful’ ones ended up in the National Museum while those that were ‘useless’ were dispersed around the world.
One of these dealers was Antonios Papademos an unknown figure to us were it not for his 103 ‘useful’ artefacts yielded to the Museum in 1900. Contrary to many other declarations during this period the one compiled for the 727 Papademos antiquities is exemplary and comes together with a package of archival information documenting among other things the whole procedure which led to the acquisition of his objects by the Museum and some of his subsequent export requests; it was thus particularly tempting for us to embark on a quest for the identification of his ‘useless’ objects which have ended up in Europe the United States and even the Caribbean.
Lord William Taylour. Parallel Lives in Greece and Cambridge
This contribution considers the papers of Lord William ‘Billy’ Taylour a British archaeologist working in Greece between the 1950s and 1980s: specifically it looks at what it is about Taylour’s archive in its formation and character that allows for a deep archival archaeology of his work. Recent 3D GIS reconstruction that has brought into clearer focus Taylour’s early work at Pylos has been enabled by two particular dimensions of his papers: the availability and abundance of archival material and the rich and detailed nature of their documentation. By considering the scope of Taylour’s archaeological archive in Cambridge alongside other institutional archives in which he features this chapter suggests that it was Taylour’s background in finance and his mentality for clear extensive and objective documentation that makes his work so ripe for re-evaluation today. Furthermore by considering Taylour’s ubiquitous appearance in the archives of the Cambridge University Catholic Chaplaincy this chapter argues that Taylour was too preoccupied by other duties in Cambridge to commit fully to the publication of archaeological work completed in Greece with the effect that he wrote in a way so that others could continue to work on his archaeological data when he himself did not have the time. In addition to attributing this to a general sense of openness and generosity this paper also suggests that Taylour conceptualized his papers within his own lifetime as an open ‘library’ before consciously sorting and labelling his notes into an ‘archive’ prior to his death.
In the Field and through the Archives. The 1928 American-British Campaign in Gerasa and the Excavation of the Church of St Theodore
Gerasa also known as Antiochia on the Chrysorrhoas was a Decapolis city today situated in modern Jordan. In 1928 the first large-scale excavations were undertaken at the site by an American-British team. The excavations continued until 1934 uncovering what is still considered a model example of a Roman city in the Near East and research into the site’s history exploded with the excavations. It was the city’s Roman and Christian heritage that stood at the centre of the early excavations. This paper explores documentation from the first excavation campaign which took place in the spring and summer of 1928 and asks how the past has mainly been reconstructed through the 1938 publication by C. H. Kraeling and how Gerasa’s history might be explored in a more nuanced way by bringing to light the overlooked archival material held at Yale University Art Gallery.
The Ephemeral City. Refugees amongst Antiquities in Inter-war Athens
After the Greek military defeat in the depths of Anatolia a wave of refugees fled to the Greek capital and sought shelter among the monuments and archaeological sites in the old inner city. Based on a set of documents kept in the Historical Archive of Antiquities and Restorations of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture as well as plans photographs legal texts reports newspaper articles and memoirs the paper discusses the mechanisms which the authorities and in particular the State Archaeological Service developed in order to address the multifaceted challenges arising from this transformative event. It traces back the intricate stories of the temporary presence of refugees among the Athenian antiquities the development of tourism and the creation of the vast archaeological zone in the historic centre comprising the Athenian Acropolis the surrounding hills and the ancient Agora.
The Annotated Archive. Marginalia and Meaning in Following Pots
As curated spaces archives and their archivists are rarely neutral which can result in exclusions gatekeeping and prejudices. Archives are filled with annotations: embellishments marginalia postscripts side notes and underlined passages. These extra-textual additions can influence the researcher but they can also provide a greater understanding of scholarly developments reader responses and hidden agendas all of which help us to interpret the past. Using archival resources and ethnographic interviews we trace how pots from Early Bronze Age (c. 3600–2000 bc) sites along the Dead Sea Plain in Jordan move to reconstruct the pathways to their current locations and to gain insights into the history of archaeological practice in the region. Through an investigation of power in archival materials and repositories we are examining the annotations to archival documents and looking at marginalia for meaning in following pots.
Alexandrian Archaeology (1798–1903). A ‘Local Archaeology’
The history of Alexandrian archaeology and of its archives is closely linked to the history of the city itself and of the institutions created by a cosmopolitan society which aimed to exalt ancient Alexandria which was reincarnated in its eyes in contemporary Alexandria. Before the creation of the Municipality of Alexandria in 1890 and then that of the Graeco-Roman Museum and the Archaeological Society of Alexandria in the following years archaeology was most often in the hands of amateurs and collectors of diverse origins. At a time when cultural diplomacy was developing in the eastern Mediterranean Alexandria remained outside the scope of the Great Powers and of state archaeological expeditions.
Visions of Epiros between Greece and Rome. Demetrios Evangelidis and Luigi Ugolini
A country created almost by chance out of the chaos of the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and then the maelstrom of the First and Second World Wars Albania has had various identities proposed and imposed upon it. Prior to 1945 all archaeology was effectively undertaken by foreign missions with a nascent interest from foreign-trained local Albanian scholars. The archives of these missions illustrate the collision between competing geopolitical philosophies and methodological approaches particularly relevant in the contested region corresponding with the territory of ancient Epirus. This paper will attempt to reconstruct several and differently aimed appropriations/interpretations of ancient Epirus by focusing on the documents produced by the archaeological missions sponsored by the governments of Athens and Rome in the early part of the twentieth century: the letters written by Demetrios Evangelidis sent by the Greek state to survey the archaeological remains of southern Albania between the Balkan Wars (from 25 June to 7 August 1913); and the more extensive records produced by Luigi Ugolini’s archaeological mission between 1926 and 1936 under the auspices of the Italian fascist government.
Gentlemen’s Agreements. Applying Contemporary Archaeological Ethics in an Archival Setting
In addition to records of survey and excavation archaeological archives contain a wealth of less intentionally collected information concerning past fieldwork and research practices much of which reflects traditions that are out of sync with contemporary archaeological ethics. Using the MSU Excavations at Isthmia as a starting point this contribution argues that more consistent efforts to recognize the intellectual property rights of project participants offer numerous benefits to archaeology as a profession.
Archival Palimpsests. Investigating the History of Harald Ingholt’s Archive of Palmyrene Sculptures
Harald Ingholt’s earliest involvement with Palmyrene art can be traced back to the early 1920s. By 1922 when he had begun planning a comprehensive corpus of Palmyrene sculpture he had already started creating what became his archive. By 1983 when the archive was moved to the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Copenhagen it comprised more than two thousand sheets with photographs and notes. There it was reorganized by Gunhild Ploug. Since 2012 the Palmyra Portrait Project team has worked on various aspects of the archive — including its original physical order — and have been able to reconstruct Ingholt’s primary organization of the sheets. This disentangling of later reorganizations revealed that Ingholt worked on the archive for his entire academic career. However there are still open questions regarding the chronological sequence of its creation and upkeep. Through the study of the archive it is clear that Ingholt added objects as he came across them either by personal autopsy or through their publications. This contribution aims to study the creation of the archive as a process in its own right by following the sequence of notes and publication dates of Ingholt’s references from its inception to its donation to the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Copenhagen.
The Archaeological Department of the Greek Governance of Smyrna (1919–1922). Archaeology in the War Zone through Archival Testimonies
The Greek occupation and administration of the Smyrna Zone began with the landing of the Greek army in the city’s harbour in May 1919 after the Allies’ approval and ended with its disorderly retreat and complete annihilation of the Asia Minor Greeks in September 1922. Within these three years the Greek state established and funded the High Commission a local government scheme formulated as a League of Nations mandate.
Greek archaeologists settled in Asia Minor a few months after the political and military forces in October 1919. In the following years the Archaeological Department of Smyrna of the local Directorate of Education achieved the safekeeping preservation rescue research and management of excavated remains collection of endangered antiquities rearrangement and enrichment of the Evangelical School Museum and the establishment of a few public collections. After providing excavation permits to the foreign archaeological institutes of France the UK and the USA to proceed with their old excavations in Asia Minor the High Commission decided to carry out excavations in three archaeological sites in the summer of 1921 and 1922; the ancient Greek cities of Klazomenai and Nysa on the Maeander and the Basilica of Hagios Ioannis Theologos in Ephesus.
This work presents unknown administrative records unpublished photographs and valuable evidence for the excavations conducted by the Greek archaeological mission. Archival material is also valuable for tracing the original find-spot of movable antiquities dispatched to collections and for revealing the role of military personnel in spotting antiquities in the occupied regions. It also demonstrates the decent and methodical work of the Greek archaeologists who managed to keep their distance from the national excitement of their times.
Trends in Archive Archaeology
Current Research on Archival Material from Fieldwork and its Implications for Archaeological Practice
Archive archaeology has in recent years become increasingly acknowledged as an important component of archaeological research. However the vast amounts of empirical data contained in such archives — among them fieldwork diaries working notebooks finds sheets and photographs — together with a sense that the field is often skewed towards ‘one’s own data’ have made it difficult to develop a clear methodological approach that fits all eventualities. The result is that archive archaeology is still not always recognized for what it can bring to the discipline of archaeology as a field of study that focuses on the contexts within which humanity developed.
This volume draws together contributions from scholars who work with archives in a variety of capacities: as fieldwork directors of decades-long excavations; as archivists interested in the history of collections; as specialists focusing on certain object groups or regions; and as researchers broadly interested in what archival material brings to the table in terms of new knowledge about archaeological situations. In showcasing contributions of work in progress the chapters published here bring to the fore knowledge about archives that has long been overlooked and examine how archival archaeology should be shaped in the future so that it can become more firmly integrated within archaeological practice.