Skip to content
1882
Volume 7, Issue 1
  • ISSN: 2034-3515
  • E-ISSN: 2034-3523

Abstract

Abstract

It is often claimed that both beer-hopping and large-scale brewing began in Western European monasteries during the early Middle Ages. However, the ancient Celts already hopped beers, and probably also barrelled them and brewed them on a large-scale. Furthermore, the first beer-drinking monks were in Egypt, where there also had long existed large beer-production facilities. Rather than being innovative, Western European monastic beer-making was highly dependent on both the self-sufficient industry of Egyptian monks (themselves probably influenced by Roman soldiers) and the brewing traditions of Celts.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1484/J.JMMS.5.116565
2018-01-01
2025-12-06

Metrics

Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Primary Sources
    Acta sanctorum, ed. by Jean Bolland and others, 65 vols (Antwerp: Société des Bollandistes, 1643–1940)
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland, i: From the Earliest Times to the Year 1616, ed. and trans. by John O’Donovan, 3rd edn (Dublin: De Búrca, 1990)
    [Google Scholar]
  3. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, ix, trans. by Alan Menzies (New york: The Christian Literature Company, 1896)
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Benedict of Aniane, Benedicti Anianensis concordia regularum, ed. by Pierre Bonnerue, Corpus Christianorum continuatio mediaevalis, 168 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1999)
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Cassian, Cassianus, Conlationes, editio altera supplementis aucta curante Gottfried Kreuz, ed. by Michael Petschenig, Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 13 (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2004)
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Cassian, De institutione coenobiorum, De incarnatione contra Nestorium, editio altera supplementis aucta curante Gottfried Kreuz, ed. by Michael Petschenig, Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 17 (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2004)
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Chronicon Cameracense et Atrebatense, ed. by George Colveneere (Georgius Colvenerius) (Douai [Duaci]: Ioannis Bogardi, 1615)
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Conchubrani vita Sanctae Monennae’, ed. by Mario Esposito, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 28, C (1910), 202251
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Corpus consuetudinum monasticarum, i, ed. by Josef Semmler (Siegburg: Schmitt, 1963)
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Das angelsächsische Prosa-Leben des hl. Guthlac, ed. by Paul Gonser (Heidelberg: Winter, 1909)
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Das Polyptychon und die Notitia de Areis von Saint-Maur-des-Fossés: Analyse und Edition, ed. by Dieter Hägermann and Andreas Hedwig (Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke, 1990)
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Das Polyptychon von Montierender: Kritische Edition und Analyse, ed. by Claus-Dieter Droste (Trier: Trierer historische Forschungen, 1988)
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Das Polyptychon von Saint-Germain-des-Prés: Studienausgabe, ed. by Dieter Hägermann (Cologne: Böhlau, 1993)
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Das Prümer Urbar, ed. by Ingo Schwab (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1983)
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Das Urbar der Abtei St Maximin vor Trier, ed. by Reiner Nolden (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1999)
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Die Urkunden der Karolinger, i: Urkunden Pippins, Karlmanns und Karls des Grossen, ed. by Englebert Mühlbacher (Hannover: Hahn, 1906)
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Diplomata Belgica ante annum millesimum centesimum scripta, i: Teksten, ed. by Maurits Gysseling and Anton C. F. Koch (Brussels: Belgisch Inter-universitair Centrum voor Neerlandistiek, 1950)
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Epistolae selectae, ed. by Ernst Dümmler and others, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Epistolae, iv (Berlin: Weidmann, 1895)
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Epistolae Karolini aevi, ed. by Ernst Dümmler and others, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Epistolae, v (Berlin: Weidmann, 1899)
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Expositio regulae ab Hildemaro tradita, ed. by Ruppert Mittermüller (Regensburg: Pustet, 1880)
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Felix, Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, ed. and trans. by Bertram Colgrave (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 1956)
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Historiae Frisingensis tomi primi pars altera instrumentaria, ed. by Karl (Carolus) Meichelbeck (Augsburg [Augusta Vindelicorum]: Veith, 1724)
    [Google Scholar]
  23. The Irish Penitentials, ed. by Ludwig Bieler, Scriptores Latini Hiberniae, 5 (Dublin: The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1963)
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Jerome, Hieronymus, Epistulae 1–70, editio altera supplementis aucta curante Margit Kamptner, ed. by Isidorus Hilberg, Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 54 (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1996)
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Kyrillos von Scythopolis, ed. by Eduard Schwartz (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1939)
    [Google Scholar]
  26. La règle de Saint Augustin, i: Tradition manuscrite, ed. by Luc Verheijen (Paris: études Augustiniennes, 1967)
    [Google Scholar]
  27. La règle de Saint Benoît, i: Chapitres I–VII, ed. by Adalbert de Vogüé and Jean Neufville, Sources chrétiennes, 181 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1972)
    [Google Scholar]
  28. La règle de Saint Benoît, ii: Chapitres VIII–LXXIII, ed. by Adalbert de Vogüé and Jean Neufville, Sources chrétiennes, 182 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1972)
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Le polyptyque de l’Abbaye de Saint-Bertin (844–59), ed. by François Louis Ganshof (Paris: Klincksieck, 1975)
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Le polyptyque et les listes de biens de l’abbaye Saint-Pierre de Lobbes (IXe–XIe siècles), ed. by Jean-Pierre Devroey (Brussels: Palais des académies, 1986)
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Le polyptyque et les listes de cens de l’abbaye de Saint-Rémi de Reims (IXe–XIe siècles), ed. by Jean-Pierre Devroey (Reims: Académie nationale de Reims, 1984)
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Les ‘Cestes’ de Julius Africanus, ed. by Jean-René Vieillefond (Paris: Didier, 1970)
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Liber possessionum Wizenburgensis, ed. by Christophe Dette (Mainz: Verlag der Gesellschaft für mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, 1987)
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore, ed. and trans. by Whitley Stokes (Oxford: Clarendon, 1890)
    [Google Scholar]
  35. The Monastery at Tallaght’, ed. and trans. by Edward J. Gwynn and Walter J. Purton, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, C 29 (1911), 115179
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Oeuvres de Saint Pachôme et de ses disciples, ed. by L. Théophile Lefort, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 159 (Louvain: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1956)
    [Google Scholar]
  37. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, xii: Nos. 1405–1593, ed. and trans. by Bernard P. Grenfell and Arthur S. Hunt (London: The Egypt Exploration Society, 1916)
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Pachomian Koinonia: The Lives, Rules, and Other Writings of Saint Pachomius and his Disciples, trans. by Armand Veilleux, 2 vols (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1980–81)
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Palladius, The Lausiac History of Palladius, ii: The Greek Text Edited with Introduction and Notes, ed. by Cuthbert Butler (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 1904)
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Papiri dell’Università di Genova, iii, ed. by Livia Migliardi Zingale (Florence: Gonnelli, 1991)
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici et antiquiorum aliquot, ed. by Bruno Krusch, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, iii (Hannover: Hahn, 1896)
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici, ed. by Bruno Krusch, in Monumenta Ger- maniae historica, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, iv (Hannover: Hahn, 1902)
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici, ed. by Bruno Krusch and Wilhelm Levison, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, v (Hannover: Hahn, 1910)
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Patrologiae cursus completus: series graeca, ed. by Jacques-Paul Migne, 161 vols (Paris: Vrayet, 1857–66)
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Patrologiae cursus completus: series latina, ed. by Jacques-Paul Migne, 221 vols (Paris: Vrayet, 1841–55)
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Paul the Deacon, Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, ed. by Georg Waitz (Hannover: Hahn, 1878)
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Placidus (Glossator), Placidus liber glossarum, glossaria reliqua, ed. by Georg Goetz, Corpus glossarium Latinorum, 5 (Leipzig: Teubner, 1894)
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Pliny, Pliny, Natural History, iv: XII–XVI, ed. and trans. by Harris Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, 370, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press, 1968)
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Pliny, Pliny, Natural History, v: xVI–xIx, ed. and trans. by Harris Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, 371, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press, 1961)
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Pliny, Pliny, Natural History, vi: XX–XXIII, ed. and trans. by William H. S. Jones, Loeb Classical Library, 392, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press, 1969)
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Plutarch, Plutarque, Vies, vi: Pyrrhos, Marius; Lysandre, Sylla, ed. and trans. by Robert Flacelière and Émile Chambry (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1971)
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Posidonius, Poseidonios, Die Fragmente, i: Texte, ed. by Willy Theiler (Berlin: de Gruyter 1982)
    [Google Scholar]
  53. The Rule of Tallaght, ed. by Edward J. Gwynn (Dublin: Hodges, Figgis, 1927)
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Sancti Columbani opera, ed. by G. S. Murdoch Walker, Scriptores Latini Hiberniae, 2 (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1957)
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Scriptores rerum Sangallensium aevi Carolini, ed. by Georg Heinrich Pertz, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores, ii (Leipzig: Hiersemann, 1925)
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Sinuthii Archimandritae vita et opera omnia, i: Sinuthii vita Bohairice, ed. by Johannes Leipoldt and Walter Ewing Crum, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 41 (Louvain: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1906)
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Sinuthii Archimandritae vita et opera omnia, iv.1: Textus, ed. by Hermann Wiesmann, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 108 (Louvain: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1936)
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Sinuthii Archimandritae vita et opera omnia, iv.2: Versio, ed. by Johannes Leipoldt and Walter Ewing Crum, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 73 (Louvain: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1913)
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Sinuthii Vita Bohairice, ed. by Hermann Wiesmann, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 129 (Louvain: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1951)
    [Google Scholar]
  60. The Tebtunis Papyri, ii: Pap. 265–689, ed. by Bernard P. Grenfell, Arthur S. Hunt, and Edgar J. Goodspeed (London: Henry Frowde, 1907)
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Theodoret of Cyrus, Théodoret de Cyr, Histoires des moines de Syrie, i: Histoire Philothée I– XIII, ed. and trans. by Pierre Canivet and Alice Leroy-Molinghen, Sources chrétiennes, 234 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1977)
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Theodoret of Cyrus, Théodoret de Cyr, Histoires des moines de Syrie, ii: Histoire Philothée XIV–XXX, Traité sur la Charité (XXXI) et index, ed. and trans. by Pierre Canivet and Alice Leroy-Molinghen, Sources chrétiennes, 257 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1977)
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Theodoret of Cyrus, Théodoret de Cyr, Commentaire sur Isaïe, ii: Sections 4–13, ed. by Jean-Noël Guinot, Sources chrétiennes, 295 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1982)
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Traditiones et antiquitates Fuldenses, ed. by Ernst F. J. Dronke (Fulda: Euler, 1844)
    [Google Scholar]
  65. un état de redevances dues à la mense conventuelle de Saint-Denis (832)’, ed. by Leon Levillain, Bulletin de la société de l’histoire de Paris, 36 (1909), 7990
    [Google Scholar]
  66. The Vindolanda Writing Tablets, ed. by Alan Bowman and David Thomas, Tabulae Vindolandenses, 2 (London: British Museum Press, 1994)
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Vitae sanctorum Hiberniae ex codice olim Salmanticensi nunc Bruxellensi, ed. by William Watts Heist, Subsidia hagiographica, 28 (Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1965)
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Vitae sanctorum Hiberniae, ed. by Charles Plummer, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910)
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Zenon Papyri, ed. by Campbell C. Edgar (Ann Arbor: university of Michigan Press, 1931)
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Zenon Papyri, Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée du Caire, ed. by Campbell C. Edgar (Cairo: Imprimerie de l’institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1926)
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Secondary Sources
    Alworth, Jeff, The Beer Bible (New york: Workman, 2015)
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Archetti, Gabriele, ‘De mensura potus: Il vino dei monachi nel Medioevo’, in La civiltà del vino: Fonti, temi e produzioni vitivinicole dal Medioevo al Novecento, ed. by Gabriele Archetti (Brescia: Centro culturale artistico di Franciacorta e del Sebino, 2003), pp. 205326
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Arnold, John Paul, Origin and History of Beer and Brewing (Chicago: Wahl-Henius Institute, 1911)
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Bamforth, Charles W., Grape vs. Grain: A Historical, Technological, and Social Comparison of Wine and Beer (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 2008)
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Bequet, Alfred, ‘La villa romaine de Ronchinne et sa brasserie (IIIe et IVe siècles)’, Annales de la société archéologique de Namur, 21 (1895), 177208
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Bevan, Andrew, ‘Mediterranean Containerization’, Current Anthropology, 55 (2014), 387418
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Bitel, Lisa M., Isle of the Saints: Monastic Settlement and Christian Community in Early Ireland (Ithaca: Cornell university Press, 1990)
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Brambilla, Valentina, and others, Birrerie d’Italia (Milan: Progetto, 2005)
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Bremmer, Jan N., ‘Symbols of Marginality from Early Pythagoreans to Late Antique Monks’, Greece & Rome, 39 (1992), 205214
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Brinkmann, Stefanie, ‘Beer in Early Islam: A H. adī-t Perspective’, The Arabist: Budapest Studies in Arabic, 34 (2014), 132
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Brown, Peter, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New york: Columbia university Press, 1988)
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Cantwell, Dick, and Peter Bouckaert, Wood and Beer: A Brewer’s Guide (Boulder: Brewers Publications, 2016)
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Castelletti, Lanfredo, and others, ‘Il contenuto del bicchiere della t. 11.’, in La birra e il fiume: Pombia e le vie dell’ Ovest Ticino tra VI e V secolo a.C., ed. by Filippo Maria Gambari (Torino: Celid, 2001), pp. 107109.
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Champion, Étienne, Moulins et meuniers carolingiens dans les polyptyques entre Loire et Rhin (Paris: Association pour l’édition et la diffusion des études historiques/Vulcain, 1996)
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Clarysse, Willy, ‘use and Abuse of Beer and Wine in Graeco-Roman Egypt’, in Punica, Libyca, Ptolemaica: Festschrift für Werner Huss, ed. by Klaus Geus and Klaus Zimmermann (Leuven: Peeters, 2001), pp. 159166
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Clarysse, Willy, and Katelijn Vandorpe, Zenon, un homme d’affaires grec à l’ombre des pyramides (Leuven: Leuven university Press, 1995)
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Constable, Giles, Monastic Tithes from their Origins to the Twelfth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 1964)
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Coon, Lynda L., ‘Collecting the Desert in the Carolingian West’, Church History and Religious Culture, 86 (2006), 135162
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Death, James, The Beer of the Bible (London: Trübner, 1887)
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: une approche linguistique du vieuxceltique continental (Paris: Editions errance, 2001)
    [Google Scholar]
  91. DeLyser, Dydia Y., and William J. Kasper, ‘Hopped Beer: The Case for Cultivation’, Economic Botany, 48 (1994), 166170
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Diem, Albrecht, ‘Rewriting Benedict: The Regula cuiusdam ad virgines and Intertextuality as Tool to Construct a Monastic Identity’, The Journal of Medieval Latin, 17 (2007), 313328
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Dorchy, Henry, Histoire de Belges, 7th edn (Brussels: de Boeck, 1991)
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Dunn, Marilyn, The Emergence of Monasticism: From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages (Oxford: Wiley, 2000)
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Ebeling, Jennie R., and Michael M. Homan, ‘Baking and Brewing Beer in the Israelite Household: A Study of Women’s Cooking Technology’, in The World of Women in the Ancient and Classical Near East, ed. by Beth Alpert Nakhai (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars, 2008), pp. 4562
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Elliott, Michael A., ‘Monastic Asceticism and the Rationalization of Beer Making in the Middle Ages’, Avista Forum Journal, 21 (2011), 5561
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Fossier, Robert, Polyptyques et censiers (Turnhout: Brepols, 1978)
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Glorieux, Palémon, Pour revaloriser Migne (Lille: Facultés Catholiques, 1952)
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Hadas, Gideon, ‘Beer Barrels from Tel Goren, Ein Gedi’, Revue biblique, 111 (2004), 409418
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Harmless, William, Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2004)
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Hieronymus, Stan, Brew like a Monk (Boulder: Brewers Publications, 2005)
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Hieronymus, Stan, For the Love of Hops: The Practical Guide to Aroma, Bitterness and the Culture of Hops (Boulder: Brewers Publications, 2012)
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Homan, Michael M., ‘Beer Production by Throwing Bread into Water: A New Interpretation of QOH. xI 1–2ʹ, Vetus Testamentum, 52 (2002), 27578
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Homan, Michael M., ‘Beer, Barley, and שֵׁכָר in the Hebrew Bible’, in Le-David Maskil: A Birthday Tribute for David Noel Freedman, ed. by Richard Elliott Friedman and William H. C. Propp (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2004), pp. 2538
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Horn, Walter, and Ernest Born, The Plan of St Gall: A Study of the Architecture and Economy of, and Life in a Paradigmatic Carolingian Monastery, 3 vols (Berkeley: university of California Press, 1979)
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Hornsey, Ian S., A History of Beer and Brewing (Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003)
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Ingemark, Dominic, Glass, Alcohol and Power in Roman Iron Age Scotland (Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland, 2014)
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Johnson, Allan Chester, Roman Egypt to the Reign of Diocletian, 2 vols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins university Press, 1936)
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Judge, Edwin A., ‘The Earliest use of monachos for “Monk” (P. Coll. Youtie 77) and the Origins of Monasticism’, Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum, 20 (1977), 7289
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Junkelmann, Marcus, Panis militaris: Die Ernährung des römischen Soldaten oder der Grundstoff der Macht (Mainz: von zabern, 1997)
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Laubenheimer, Fanette, Pierre Ouzoulias, and Paul Van Ossel, ‘La bière en Gaule. Sa fabrication, les mots pour le dire, les vestiges archéologiques: premières approches’, Revue archéologique de Picardie, 1–2 (2003), 4763
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Lewicka, Paulina, ‘Restaurants, Inns, and Taverns That Never Were: Some Reflections on Public Consumption in Medieval Cairo’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 48 (2005), 4091
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Lewicka, Paulina, Food and Foodways of Medieval Cairenes: Aspects of Life in an Islamic Metropolis of the Eastern Mediterranean (Leiden: Brill, 2011)
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Mayerson, Philip, ‘The Sack (Sakkos) is the Artaba Writ Large’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 122 (1998), 189194
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Melville, Gert, The World of Medieval Monasticism: Its History and Forms of Life, trans. by James D. Mixson (Athens, OH: Cistercian Publications, 2016)
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Nelson, Max, ‘Beer in Greco-Roman Antiquity’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, 2001)
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Nelson, Max, The Barbarian’s Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe (London: Routledge, 2005)
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Nelson, Max, ‘Divine or Godless Drink? Ancient Greek Notions Concerning the Origins of Beer and Wine’, ARAM, 17 (2005), 12934
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Nelson, Max, ‘The Geography of Beer in Europe from 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1000ʹ, in The Geography of Beer: Regions, Environment, Societies, ed. by Mark Patterson and Nancy Hoalst-Pullen (Berlin: Springer, 2014), pp. 921
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Nelson, Max, ‘To your Health! The Role of Beer in Ancient Medicine’, in Beer: Production, Consumption, and Health Effects, ed. by William H. Salazar (New york: Nova Science, 2016), pp. 125
    [Google Scholar]
  121. O’Dwyer, Peter, Célí Dé: Spiritual Reform in Ireland, 750–900 (Dublin: Tailliura, 1981)
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Phang, Sara Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 2008)
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Poelmans, Eline, and Johan F. M. Swinnen, ‘A Brief Economic History of Beer’, in The Economics of Beer, ed. by Johan F. M. Swinnen (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2011), pp. 328
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Poelmans, Eline, and Johan F. M. Swinnen, ‘From Monasteries to Multinationals (and Back): A Historical Review of the Beer Economy’, LICOS Discussion Paper, 294 (2011), 124
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Protz, Roger, Heavenly Beer: A Taster’s Guide to Monastery Tradition Ales and Lagers (London: Carroll and Brown, 2002)
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Rösch, Manfred, ‘New Aspects of Agriculture and Diet of the Early Medieval Period in Central Europe: Waterlogged Plant Material from Sites in South-Western Germany’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17, Supplement (2008), 22538
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Rossi, Sabina, ‘Birra e altre bevande fermentate attraverso lo studio del polline fossile: tracce nella ceramica protostorica del nord-ovest’, in I celti in insubria: nuove prospettive; atti del convegno (Varese: Associazione culturale Terra Insubre, 2011), pp. 8894
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Rouche, Michel, ‘La faim à l’époque carolingienne: essai sur quelques types de rations alimentaires’, Revue historique, 250 (1973), 295320
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Samuel, Delwen, ‘Brewing and Baking’, in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, ed. by Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw (Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 2000), pp. 537576
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Sewell, Steven L., ‘The Spatial Diffusion of Beer from its Sumerian Origins to Today’, in The Geography of Beer: Regions, Environment, Societies, ed. by Mark Patterson and Nancy Hoalst-Pullen (Berlin: Springer, 2014), pp. 2329
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Shuck, Glenn W., ‘Brewing, Western Christian’, in Encyclopedia of Monasticism, ed. by William M. Johnston and Christopher Kleinhenz (London: Routledge, 2015), pp. 18182
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Swinnen, Johan, and Devin Briski, Beeronomics: How Beer Explains the World (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2017)
    [Google Scholar]
  133. unger, Richard W., A History of Brewing in Holland, 900–1900: Economy, Technology and the State (Leiden: Brill, 2001)
    [Google Scholar]
  134. unger, Richard W., ‘Beer: A New Bulk Good of International Trade’, in Cogs, Cargoes, and Commerce: Maritime Bulk Trade in Northern Europe, 1150–1400, ed. by Lars Berggren, Nils Hybel, and Annette Landen (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2002), pp. 113127
    [Google Scholar]
  135. unger, Richard W., Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Philadelphia: university of Pennsylvania Press, 2004)
    [Google Scholar]
  136. unger, Richard W., ‘Gruit and the Preservation of Beer in the Middle Ages’, AVISTA Forum Journal, 21 (2011), 4854
    [Google Scholar]
  137. de Vogüé, Adalbert, La règle de Saint Benoît, vi: commentaire historique et critique, Sources chrétiennes, 186 (Paris: Les éditions du cerf, 1971)
    [Google Scholar]
  138. de Vogüé, Adalbert, Les règles monastiques anciennes (400–700) (Turnhout: Brepols, 1985)
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Wayens, Benjamin, Isabelle Van den Steen, and Marie-Eve Ronveaux, ‘A Short Historical Geography of Beer’, in Food and Environment: Geographies of Taste, ed. by Armando Montanari (Rome: Società Geografica Italiana, 2002), pp. 93114
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wilson, D. Gay, ‘Plant Remains from the Graveney Boat and the Early History of Humulus lupulus L. in W. Europe’, New Phytologist, 75 (1975), 627648
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Wilson, Hanneke, Wine and Words in Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages (London: Bloomsbury, 2003)
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna, ‘Hopped Beer as an Innovation: The Bergen Beer Market around 1200–1600 in the European Context’, in Trade, Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange: Continuity and Change in the North Sea Area and the Baltic c. 1350–1750, ed. by Hanno Brand (Hilversum: Verloren, 2005), pp. 152168
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1484/J.JMMS.5.116565
Loading
  • Article Type: Research Article
This is a required field.
Please enter a valid email address.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An error occurred.
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error:
Please enter a valid_number test
aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuYnJlcG9sc29ubGluZS5uZXQv